| Introduction
|
Animal Welfare Issues |
| HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES |
BEEF
Richard Goodrich
Animal Science Department
208 Peters Hall
University of Minnesota
St. Paul, Minnesota 55108
and
W. Ray Stricklin
Department of Animal and Avian Sciences
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland 20742
Knowledgeable beef producers, whether they are involved in cow-calf or feedlot operations, are genuinely concerned about the care of their animals. They know that cattle that receive proper nutrition and health care and that are handled correctly will perform at or near optimum. These producers make every effort to provide the best possible environment for their animals. They recognize that beef cattle should receive appropriate care during all aspects of the production cycle. These producers also are willing to speak out for guidelines that result in improved animal welfare.
If even a small percentage of beef producers provide less than optimum care for their animals, it is of concern to other beef producers, to extension educators, and to all others associated with the production of beef. It is in the best interest of everyone that beef cattle receive proper care throughout the production cycle.
This discussion paper addresses animal welfare issues that have been raised about beef production in the United States.
ANIMAL WELFARE ISSUES
Are Certain Management Practices Cruel and Unnecessary?
Beef calves are generally dehorned, males are castrated, and many animals receive brands. Each of these practices inflicts some transient pain on the animal, but there are sound reasons for their use.
Dehorning is usually practiced when the animal is young and the horns are small. The pain inflicted on the individual animal benefits other animals and the people who work with cattle. Fights between horned animals can lead to injury of one or both animals, as a result of many normal daily interactions among cattle -- for example, competition to be first to obtain water or feed. Dehorned or polled animals are much less likely to be involved in fights that result in injury (Ensminger 1987). Likewise, humans who own horned cattle are at special risk from beef cows at calving time and from bulls at any time. Clearly, it is in the best interest of both the animals in the herd and the humans who work with the cattle to have them hornless. For these reasons, cattle breeders have taken the initiative to develop breeds of polled cattle. These polled breeds are very popular as they do not require dehorning and are safer for both other cattle and their human handlers.
Castration should be done at the earliest practical age. Castration causes little stress when the calf is less than 3 months old. Castration is practiced for three reasons -- to prevent physically or genetically inferior males from reproducing, to reduce the aggressive nature of intact males, and to improve meat quality. Castrated males produce meat with more marbling at lighter weights than intact males. Most male calves are castrated, but the desire to produce meat with less fat has led to renewed interest in the feeding of bulls that are marketed at young ages.
Brands are frequently applied to cattle in the Western States to provide permanent identification for animals that typically wander over large areas where they may commingle with cattle from other ranches. Branding inflicts pain for a short period of time. It is justified by the need to provide identification of ownership of the cattle. An alternative to hot brands is the use of freeze brands that cause the hair to change color. Freeze branding does not cause as much pain, and the hide is not damaged. Hot brands tend to be more permanent. Many cattle in Western States are branded, but those in the Eastern States commonly receive ear tags to provide identification. Ear tags are not a practical alternative to branding in some areas where they may become caught in trees and brush. This can cause pain and is a potential source of infection.
Does Feedlot Confinement Result in Stress for Beef Cattle?
Beef calves typically remain with and suckle from their dams until they are about 7 months old. They may then move directly to a feedlot, be placed on backgrounding diets (diets that contain large amounts of forage and result in moderate rates of gain), or be fed forages for about a year before they move to feedlots as yearlings. Calves that enter feedlots after removal from their dams will spend 200 to 250 days in feedlots, while backgrounded calves or yearlings will spend only 100 to 140 days in feedlots.
Although some animal rights literature leaves the impression that feedlot cattle are severely crowded, the fact is that feedlots are composed of many smaller pens containing cattle that are carefully managed and fed and that receive the best possible health care. Cattle usually are placed in pens with animals of similar age and size, reducing the possibility of animal conflicts due to size differences.
Typical feedlot pens hold only 75 to 200 cattle, regardless of the total number of cattle in the feedlot. Thus, even in large feedlots, each animal interacts with a limited number of other cattle. This allows for rapid adjustment to the feedlot environment and minimizes the stress of animal-animal interactions. Feedlots are designed to provide adequate space for resting areas and to minimize animal-animal conflicts. Feedlots provide carefully balanced rations, shade, protection from cold winds, and intensive health care.
Beef cows and their calves are raised in the pastoral setting thought of by many consumers as the ideal lifestyle for animals. Beef cows, with few exceptions, are maintained on pastures or ranges and consume harvested forage during the winter when standing forage is not available. These beef cattle consume many feedstuffs that cannot be eaten by humans; if it were not for beef, many of these renewable forage resources would not be included in the food chain for humans. Much of the land that these cattle use for grazing cannot be used for food crop production. The beef cow/calf segment of the beef sector represents the ultimate in renewable resource utilization, and animals are free to roam on pastures and ranges.
Does Exhibiting Cattle at Fairs and Shows Place Animals Under Stress and Pain?
Pain is not imposed on cattle that are exhibited at livestock shows. These cattle have generally received special attention, and there is often a close human-animal bond. The stress that the human owners often experience when the animals are sent to market after an exhibition is evidence of the deep care and feelings for these show animals (Hartsock and Gallagher 1990). Even though the people who show these animals often regret the need to market the cattle, they benefit from these "lessons of life" -- that all humans and animals deserve the best of care while they are living, and that death is the ultimate end for all.
Do Research Studies Impose Undue Stress and Pain on Cattle?
Research studies in animal science departments and in colleges of veterinary medicine generally are designed to improve the nutrition, health, housing, management, genetics, and meat quality of cattle. In most of these studies, the cattle are handled much as they would be on a very well managed farm. The major differences are that the cattle are frequently in pens with fewer animals, feed is carefully weighed, and the animals are weighed about every 28 days. Most animal research protocols are reviewed by an animal care committee, and facilities are inspected to ensure that they meet animal care standards (Curtis 1988; Stricklin and Mench 1994).
In some studies, blood samples are taken -- a routine procedure that also occurs on farms where blood samples are taken to test for diseases. Other studies may use animals that have cannulas surgically implanted to allow access to the rumen. Feed and fluids from the rumen are sampled to allow study of microbial populations and feed digestion. Cannulated cattle show no discomfort. Females have continued to reproduce and live long lives with the cannula in place.
HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Does Cattle Production Damage the Environment?
Although maintenance of high environmental quality is a concern of nearly everyone, cattle are not a primary cause of environmental degradation.
Soil erosion is a major concern of all who care about the future of food production. Most soil erosion occurs when farmers plant row crops on land that is too steep. This increases the exposure of soil to rainfall and the resulting washing of soil to lower areas -- often into streams. A proven method for preventing soil erosion is to maintain erodible land in forages, because forages provide good ground cover and hold the soil in place (Brady 1990). Therefore, planting erodible lands to forages and using these fragile soils for the production of ruminants (cattle and sheep) is a good way to maintain the soil for future generations.
Cattle have been blamed for the deterioration of water quality in the United States. In fact, industrial waste, human sewage, and runoff from urban and rural areas all are large contributors to surface water pollution. Agricultural sources of surface water and ground water pollution include chemical fertilizers, leaching of nutrients from plants, livestock manure, and herbicides and insecticides. Improperly managed livestock manure, in addition to commercial fertilizers, can be a significant contributor of nutrients in surface and ground water. Producers must exercise care when spreading livestock manure on frozen soils. Excessive amounts of total nutrients, such as those contributed from livestock manure, should not be spread on land.
Cattle are sometimes blamed for the deforestation of tropical rain forests. In reality, the cutting of trees in these areas is fostered by the desire to obtain land for crop production and to meet the lumber demands of Asia. Cattle are frequently used to pasture the fields after the high-priced lumber is harvested.
Do Cattle Consume Large Amounts of Grain That Could Be Used by Humans?
Forages not used by people (such as pasture grasses, alfalfa, and corn stalks) and byproducts (such as distillers' grains, citrus pulp, and potato processing waste) form the vast majority of feeds consumed by beef cattle (Bywater and Baldwin 1980; CAST 1986).
A beef cow consumes only forage for most of her life and may be provided with her only non-forage feed -- protein supplement -- for a short period during the winter when forage quality is low. Beef cows are not placed in feedlots, but are marketed directly from pasture or range when their productive life is completed.
The length of time that cattle spend in feedlots on high grain diets is variable. A calf typically starts life in March to May and remains with the cow on pasture or range until October or November. The calf may then be moved to a feedlot or may be maintained on a forage feeding program until a year later when it is moved to a feedlot as a yearling. Thus, beef cattle generally enter feedlots at weights of 450 to 650 pounds (calves), or 650 to 900 pounds (yearlings). For example, calves may enter the feedlot at 500 pounds and be marketed at about 1,100 pounds. Yearlings may enter the feedlot at 750 pounds and be marketed at about 1,200 pounds, while heavy yearlings enter at about 900 pounds and are marketed at about 1,200 pounds.
How much grain and protein supplement are required to produce a pound of retail beef?
Thus, it takes 2 pounds of grain and protein supplement to produce a pound of retail beef from beef cows and 3.6 pounds for heavy yearlings. For lighter weight yearlings and calves, the figures are 5.4 pounds and 6.3 pounds. These calculations do not consider the fertilizer value of the manure and urine provided by cattle during grazing and finishing.
Contrary to some published claims, it does not take 16 pounds of grain to produce a pound of beef (Robbins 1987). Since beef cows are a major source of ground beef, a value between 3 and 4 pounds of grain and protein supplement to produce a pound of ground beef would be appropriate. Only by assuming that beef animals are fed diets composed largely of grains from birth to market weight could a value as great as 16 pounds be obtained. Those familiar with the beef industry know that this does not occur. In fact, cattle do not require any grain for the production of meat; the microbes in the rumen manufacture high-quality protein from nonprotein nitrogen.
Although much of the concern about the welfare of beef cattle has been unfounded, the increased awareness on these issues has encouraged beef producers and livestock researchers to reexamine animal care and handling procedures. Improvements have been made: cattle are handled in a much better manner today than they were in the past. Continuing research on animal behavior, physiological indicators of well-being, methods to minimize stress, and interactions of environment with health and productivity will help the industry further improve techniques for the care and handling of cattle.
1. Brady, Nyle C. 1990. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 10th Ed. McMillian Publ. Co., N.Y., pp. 440-441.
2. Bywater, A. C. and R. L. Baldwin. 1980. Alternative strategies in food-animal production. In: Animals, feed, food, and people, and analysis of the role of animals in food production. (Ed) R. L. Baldwin. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Westview Press, Inc., Boulder, CO, pp. 1-30.
3. CAST. 1986. Forages: Resources for the future. Council for Agr. Sci. and Tech. No. 108.
4. Curtis, S. E. (ed). 1988. Guide for the care and use of agricultural animals in agricultural research and teaching. Corsortium Headquarters, 309 West Clark Street, Champaign, IL.
5. Ensminger, M. E. 1987. Beef Cattle Science. 6th ed. Interstate Printers and Publishers, Danville, IL, p. 383.
6. Hartsock, T. G. and J. P. Gallagher. 1990. Public livestock shows and animal rights protests. University of Maryland and Penn State University. Pub. 5M690.
7. Robbins, John. 1987. Diet for a New America. Stillpoint Pub. International, Walpole, New Hampshire.
8. Stricklin, W.R. and J.A. Mench. 1994. Oversight of the use of agricultural animals in university teaching and research. Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources News. 36:9-14.
| Return to Animal Welfare Issues | Top of Page |
Last Modified: October 19, 2004