| INTRODUCTION | DISCUSSION |
| RESEARCH | OUTCOME |
| REFERENCES |
EQUINE PRODUCTION AND PERFORMANCE
Katherine A. Houpt, V.M.D., Ph.D
Department of Physiology, Animal Behaviour Clinic
College of Veterinary Medicine
Cornell University
Ithaca, New York 14853-6401
and
Sharon Crowell-Davis, D.V.M., Ph.D.
Department of Anatomy and Radiology
College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia 30602
Those concerned with horse welfare have raised the following issues:
Can painful techniques to improve the performance of show horses be eliminated? "Soring," for example, is a procedure used on Tennessee Walkers to encourage exaggerated lifting of the front legs. Soring consists of abrading the skin of the limb and applying irritants. Another practice is severing of the tail tendon or using alcohol injections to prevent tail movement of quarter horses to make them appear more calm (excited horses may lash their tails or carry them high). There is also some concern about whether techniques such as tight straps around the flanks are used to encourage bucking in horses used for bucking contests in rodeos (1).
Is sensory deprivation used to improve performance? Some saddlebred and Arabian show horses are kept isolated in darkened and sound-dampened stalls except when in the show ring which, in contrast, is brightly illuminated and noisy. The contrast may result in a hyperactive behavior that the judges might misinterpret as a naturally alert or spirited temperament.
Can injury to race horses and cross-country jumping horses be reduced? The public is aware of breakdowns on the race track and wonder if the horses were fit to race (2,3) or if the track was suitable. Three-day event competitions at the international levels have been associated with difficult courses that result in injuries and accidents to horses. These incidents may be viewed by many people, because an accident makes a more exciting presentation than a flawless, but safe, performance.
Are horses slaughtered or euthanized humanely? Euthanasia of race horses has been criticized as inhumane when a paralytic agent is used. As has been the case for cattle and other food-producing animals, the sale of horses for meat has resulted in thefts and in problems during transport and handling.
Are the feral (wild) horses of the United States properly handled by the Government? Abuses in the Adopt-a-Horse program have generated considerable publicity. Some people acquired large numbers of horses for eventual resale and did not provide proper care for them. There has also been concern about stress on the horses during capture and transport, and about horses who are moved from their home range and are then unable to procure enough food and water in the new area or to find their way back to the original range (4).
Is branding painful? Some horses are branded with hot irons and others with freeze brands.
Are horses properly housed and fed? The horse evolved to live in a herd and to eat a high-roughage diet of grass. What are its requirements when it is confined and fed a high grain and/or protein diet?
Is the use of carriage horses in the city cruel? Questions have been raised about whether carriage horses are worked for excessive periods and/or in extreme temperatures (5).
Are lack of freedom to move and water access detrimental to mares? The urine of pregnant mares is used as a source of estrogen for post-menopausal women. The mares are kept in straight stalls wearing a urine collection harness for six months with limited opportunity to exercise. Water is limited to increase estrogen concentration in the urine.
Soring is prohibited by USDA regulations, but occasional problems may arise when funds are not available to check for infractions. Shoe size and weight are also regulated (6).
The American Quarter Horse Association prohibits the practice of altering tails (7). An electromyographic technique has been developed to determine whether a horse's tail has been denervated. Consideration might also be given to other tail issues. American saddlebreds and other gaited horses may have the tail tendon cut and the tail placed vertically upright in a harness. The harness or tail "set" is worn most of the time and restricts swishing of the tail. The tails of other breeds, such as Hackneys and many draft breeds, are docked, i.e., the bottom portion of the tail is surgically removed to shorten it and prevent interference with harnesses. The horses cannot defend themselves from insects and so extra care must be taken by use of insect control, screens, and repellents.
The degree of discomfort that rodeo horses may experience from such practices as the use of tight flank straps has not been determined.
Some research has been done on sensory deprivation. The advisability of housing horses in the dark is not supported by a study that showed that horses prefer a lightened environment and will work to obtain light (8).
Extensive measures are taken to prevent injury to race horses and jumpers. Veterinarians and officials examine horses before they race and make every effort to prevent lame or otherwise unfit horses from racing (9). This includes pre-race examination of each horse in motion; examination of any areas of the horse that appear abnormal; and observation of the horse during the parade to post, at the starting gate, and during and after the race. Horses can be denied entry into a race for health reasons. In addition, no stimulant, depressant, narcotic tranquilizer, or local anesthetic is to be used on the horses. One drug, the anti-inflammatory medication phenylbutazone, may be administered intravenously 24 hours before the race. The only other medication allowed in most States, but not in New York, is furosemide, a diuretic that may be given to horses diagnosed as having exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage.
Race horses have a high rate of injury. One third of those brought to tracks for racing leave because of musculoskeletal problems (10). Although injuries are to be expected in any athletic endeavor, the factors that predispose horses to injury, such as type of track, weather conditions, and age of the horse, are being investigated (11). Older horses and ones that have raced within 12 days may be at greater risk of breakdown, i.e., severe injury resulting in euthanasia, retirement, or prolonged recovery time.
Slaughter of horses is usually preceded by stunning with a captive bolt device or electricity. If the procedure is done properly, the horse will be unconscious. Conditions during transport of horses to the slaughter house may be inhumane; crowding and injury can occur when too many horses are loaded on cattle-type trucks with a ceiling that is too low.
The American Veterinary Medical Association forbids the use of paralytic agents such as succinylcholine for euthanasia (12). Only if a horse is a danger to itself and its handlers can succinylcholine be used to immobilize the horse, but an anesthetic such as sodium pentobarbital must be administered immediately to euthanize the horse. If a paralytic agent alone is used, the horse will suffocate, but be fully conscious -- an inhumane death.
Feral animals are derived from domestic rather than wild animals. All the free-ranging horses in the United States are feral and are the descendants of escaped or abandoned horses. The horses compete to some extent with the truly wild native animals and to a greater extent with cattle. The Federal Government's management program for feral horses is designed to preserve the animals, but prevent overpopulation, which would result in starvation and environmental damage. The horses are rounded up by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and sold through the Adopt-a-Horse program. Because adopters cannot sell the animals for 1 year, purchase of the horses for slaughter is discouraged. Furthermore, checks are made by the BLM so that horses treated inhumanely can be reclaimed. Those reclaimed have amounted to less than 1 percent of all adopted horses (13). Some of the problems that have developed, such as what to do with unadoptable horses, are discussed in a study by the Government Accounting Office (14).
Any procedure that damages tissue is painful. In cattle, hot branding produces an escape reaction and a greater activation of the sympathetic nervous system than freeze branding, but both procedures cause an increase in cortisol (15 and 16). This is probably true in horses as well. Less painful permanent identification, such as implantation of a silicon chip, hold promise, and may lead to the elimination of breed requirements for branding.
Environmental extremes may influence the welfare of a horse. Horses can withstand dry, cold temperatures, but will become chilled when wet and cold. Therefore, it is important that horses have access to a dry environment (17). When temperatures are high, shade will reduce heat stress. Access to water and salt will allow the horse to replenish moisture and minerals lost in sweat, the primary means of thermoregulation in horses in hot climates. Horses deprived of salt will exhibit a depraved or depressed appetite.
Horses given free access to feed will eat for 10 to 12 hours per day (18). If fed primary concentrate diets (high grain, low roughage) that meet all their nutritional needs in 1 or 2 meals, horses may develop behavioral abnormalities such as wood chewing, tail biting or coprophagy (eating of feces), and psychogenic (nervous) salt eating. Ideally, at least 50 percent of the total ration should be in the form of forage. However, horses can adapt to a wide variety of diets, as long as all changes are done slowly over the course of 2 to 5 days (depending on the magnitude of the change) (19). Changes in diet, even from grass hay to alfalfa hay or pasture should be done slowly to avoid colic (abdominal pain) and the hoof disease, founder.
Drinking water is essential for all animals, including horses. Free-choice access to clean water is preferable. If water intake is limited, the average 1,000-pound horse should be provided no less than 10 gallons of water per day. Hot environmental temperatures, lactation, or hard work will increase the water requirement. Horses cannot obtain sufficient water from snow or ice.
Being kept in a stall limits socialization between horses. Size of stall may inhibit physical movement or sleep patterns. The two kinds of sleep are slow wave sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Although a horse can enter slow wave sleep while standing, it must lie down for REM sleep (20). Therefore, a horse should have enough room to lie down, preferably on its side. The stall should be as wide as the horse is tall. If the horse is tied, the tether should be long enough to permit the animal to lie down. The recommendations for horses are 9 ft2/100 lb body weight for a box stall or 12 x 12 ft and 4 ft2100 lb for a straight stall or approximately 5 X 9 feet (17). Horses prefer to lie on soft surfaces, so bedding such as straw or shavings may be necessary. Horses are reluctant to lie on wet surfaces, particularly in cold weather, so dry surfaces should be provided.
In many southern and tropical climates, horses are tethered by the halter (or by the leg, which is less safe) on a long rope to a stake in the ground or a post. All of the same requirements for feed, water, shelter in adverse conditions, salt and exercise apply to tethered horses. The tether line needs to swivel on the stake to avoid tangling and allow free movement. The rope must be thicker than 2.2 cm (1 inch), and the horse must be trained to prevent struggling with the rope. Thinner ropes can cause rope burns on the legs.
Exercise at gaits faster than the walk is probably not critical, as free-ranging horses spend little time trotting or cantering. Horses on pasture spend 70 percent of daylight hours grazing (21). Grazing usually involves walking a step, prehending grass, chewing several times, prehending again, chewing, walking a step or two, etc. In other words, the horse is walking, but walking very slowly for most of the 24-hour period. Horses that are confined in stalls, especially straight stalls may require more space for adequate movement. These horses may exhibit edema of the lower legs as a result of inactivity. Access to a paddock or hand walking for at least 15 minutes per day would probably eliminate these problems (17).
Horses roll in order to groom or scratch the parts of their body they cannot reach with their teeth or hooves. Some horses will roll in their stalls, but most will not. Horses housed in stalls will often roll when provided with a larger space. Horses that do attempt to roll in their stalls may injure themselves if they are unable to rise.
The development of stereotypies, such as weaving (walking in place, shifting weight from side to side), and stall-walking (continually walks a circle or a figure 8 in the stall) may occur because of a lack of adequate opportunity to socialize, exercise, and/or engage in other species-typical behaviors (22). It is notable that these "stable vices," which are common in domestic horses, have not been reported in any of numerous studies on feral horses (23). The presence of a large number of stereotypies in a large number of horses may be a manifestation of improper management.
Neglect cases are usually instances in which the horses are deprived of feed, water, or medical attention or kept in dirty enclosures. Abuse is the active participation in the physical maltreatment of the horse; cruelty includes an element of psychological mistreatment leading to suffering. Severe training methods could involve abuse or cruelty. Neglect, cruelty, and abuse are regulated by national, State, and local laws.
The use of horses to pull carriages in cities is controversial. The specific welfare issues include (1) housing of the horses, (2) length of workday, and (3) temperatures to which they are exposed. Many cities have legislation that restricts the hours and temperatures at which carriage rides can be made. Those concerned about the horses should learn what the laws concerning carriage horses are in their locality. They should also find out which official or government agency determines whether the horses are properly housed.
Traditionally, equine research has focused on nutrition and on diseases affecting horses. However, some research has examined stressful situations in horses, including racing, isolation (24), trailering, and confinement (25,26). Other studies have shown that horses prefer bedding (27), light, and at least some contact with other horses (8).
Future research into the welfare of the domesticated or feral horse may examine behavior patterns of domesticated horses, stressful situations, alternative training methods, housing, transportation, use of drugs, and enhancing the health of individual horses.
Regulations concerning carriage horses may restrict or eliminate their use within city limits. These restrictions may increase costs to the consumers. If carriage horses are banned, business and employment opportunities may be unjustly lost along with the opportunity of the public to interact with horses. Banning of horse racing, rodeos, or horse shows would have even more profound effects on the horse industry.
More inspection of mares used for estrogen production and removal of restrictions on the amount of urine a farmer can submit, thus eliminating the need for a concentrated urine have been instituted and should reduce the stress on the mares.
The USDA, American Horse Show Association, and specific breed organizations have rules and regulations that prohibit practices deemed to be cruel. Public pressure may result in more rules and stricter enforcement. The goal should be to improve horse welfare without restricting the ability of the public to enjoy interaction with horses.
1. Humane Society of the United States. 1975. Special report on rodeos. The Humane Society of the United States, Washington, DC.
2. Maggitti, P. 1990. They shoot up horses, don't they? The Animals' Agenda, November 1990, pp. 18-24.
3. Durso, J. 1992. Death again haunts racing's big day. New York Times, November 1, 1992.
4. Clifton, M. 1991. Feral animals: alien menace? The Animals' Agenda, March 1991, pp. 16-22.
5. King, M. 1992. The carriage trade: Putting the cash before the horse. The Animals' Agenda, pp. 42-45.
6. Animal Welfare Act of 1970. Public Law No. 91-579.
7. The American Quarter Horse Assoc. 1988. Official Handbook of the American Quarter Horse Association. 36th Edition.
8. Houpt, K. A. and T. R. Houpt. 1988. Social and illumination preferences of mares. J. Anim. Sci. 66: 2159-2164.
9. American Association of Equine Practitioners. 1991. A guide for veterinary service at the race track. Amer. Assoc. of Equine Pract., Lexington, KY, 32 pp.
10. Hill, T., G. Maylin, and L. Krook. 1986. Track conditions and racing injuries in thoroughbred horses. Cornell Vet. 76: 361-379.
11. Clanton, C., C. Kobluk, R. A. Robinson, and B. Gordon. 1991. Monitoring surface conditions of a thoroughbred racetrack. J.A.V.M.A. 198: 613-620.
12. Andrews, E.J. 1986. Report of AVMA Panel on Euthanasia. JAVMA 188:252-268.
13. U.S. Department of the Interior. 1992. Eastern States Wild Horses and Burros. Bureau of Land Management.
14. U.S. General Accounting Office, 1990. Rangeland management improvements needed in federal wild horse program. GAO/RCED-90-110. Washington, DC.
15. Lay, D.C., T.H. Friend, R.D. Randel, C.L. Bowers, K.K. Grissom, and O.C. Jenkins. 1992. Behavioral and physiological effects of freeze or hot-iron branding on crossbred cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 70:330-336.
16. Lay, D.C., Jr., T.H. Friend, C.L. Bowers, K.K. Grissom, and O.C. Jenkins. 1992. A comparative physiological and behavioral study of freeze and hot-iron branding using dairy cows. J. Anim. Sci. 70:1121-1125.
17. Anonymous. 1988. Guide for the care and use of agricultural animals in agricultural research and teaching. Consortium for Developing a Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Agricultural Research and Teaching, 74 pp.
18. Ralston, S.L. 1986. Feeding behavior. In Horse Behavior, ed. Crowell-Davis, S. Vet Clinics N. Am., W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia 2(3):609-621.
19. Hintz, H.F., 1983. Horse nutrition, a practical guide. Arco Press, New York.
20. Dallaire, A. 1986. Rest behavior. Vet. Clin. N. Amer.: Eq. Pract. 2(3):591-607.
21. Crowell-Davis, S. L., K. A. Houpt, and J. Carnevale. 1985. Feeding and drinking behavior of mares and foals with free access to pasture and water. J. Anim. Sci. 60: 883-889.
22. Luescher, U.A., D.B. McKeown, and J. Halip. 1991. Reviewing the causes of obsessive-compulsive disorders in horses. Veterinary Medicine, Equine Practice May 1991: 527-520.
23. Waring, G.H. 1983. Horse behavior. Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 292 pp.
24. Irvine, C.H. and S.L. Alexander. 1987. A novel technique for measuring hypothalamic and pituitary hormone secretion from collection of pituitary venous effluent in the normal horse. J. Endocrinol 113:183-192.
25. Baucus, K.L., S.L. Ralston, C.F. Nockels, A.O. McKinnon, and E. L. Squires. 1990. Effects of transportation on early embryonic death in mares. J. Anim. Sci. 68:345-351.
26. Anderson, N.V., R.M. DeBowes, K.A. Nyrop, and A.D. Dayton. 1985. Mononuclear phagocytes of transport-stressed horses with viral respiratory tract infection. Amer. J. Vet. Res. 46:2272-2277.
27. Hunter, L. and K.A. Houpt. 1989. Bedding material preferences of ponies. J. Anim. Sci. 67:1986-1991.
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Last Modified: October 19, 2004